Internment of Japanese Americans

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The internment of Japanese Americans in the United States during World War II was forced relocation and detention in camps in the western interior of the country between 110,000 and 120,000 Japanese, mostly living on the Pacific coast. Sixty-two percent of the internees are US citizens. This action was ordered by President Franklin D. Roosevelt shortly after the Imperial Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.

Japanese Americans are locked in concentrations of local and regional politics. More than 110,000 Japanese Americans on the US mainland, most of whom live on the West Coast, are forced into the inland camps. However, in Hawaii, where more than 150,000 Japanese-Japanese comprise over one-third of the population, only 1,200 to 1,800 are also interned. Surveillance is thought to have resulted in more out of racism than from the security risks posed by Japanese Americans. Those with only 1/16 Japanese and orphaned babies with "one drop of Japanese blood" were placed in an internment camp.

Roosevelt authorized deportation and detention with the Executive Order 9066, issued on 19 February 1942, allowing regional military commanders to designate "military territories" from which "any or all persons may be exempted". This authority is used to certify that all people from Japanese ancestors were excluded from the West Coast, including all of California and parts of Oregon, Washington, and Arizona, except those in government camps. About 5,000 Americans of Japanese descent moved outside the exclusion zone before March 1942, while about 5,500 community leaders had been arrested soon after the Pearl Harbor attack and were thus in detention. The vast majority of the nearly 130,000 Japanese Americans living on the US mainland were forced to move from their West Coast home during the spring of 1942.

The US Census Bureau assists in the effort of internment by providing confidential environmental information to Japanese Americans. The Bureau denied its role for decades, but became public in 2007. In 1944, the US Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of dismissal with a verdict against Fred Korematsu's appeal for violating an exceptional order. The Court limited its decision to the validity of exclusion orders, avoiding the issue of detention of US citizens without legal process.

In 1980, under increasing pressure from the League of American Americans of Japan and the compensation organization, President Jimmy Carter opened an investigation to determine whether the decision to put Japanese Americans into an internment camp was justified by the government. He appoints the Commission for the Relocation of War and Civil Society Control (CWRIC) to investigate the camps. The Commission's report, entitled Personal Justice Denied , found little evidence of Japanese disloyalty at the time and concluded that detention had become a product of racism. It recommends that the government pay reparations to the internees. In 1988, President Ronald Reagan signed the 1988 Civil Liberties Act, apologizing for the US on behalf of the US government and authorizing payments of $ 20,000 (equivalent to $ 41,000 in 2017) to everyone who survived the camp. The law recognizes that government action is based on "racial prejudice, war hysteria, and the failure of political leadership". The US government has finally disbursed more than $ 1.6 billion (equivalent to $ 3.310 million in 2017) in reparations to 82,219 Japanese interned Americans and their heirs.

Of the 127,000 Japanese Americans living in the continent of the United States during the Pearl Harbor attack, 112,000 live on the West Coast. Around 80,000 are Nisei (literal translation: "second generation", American-born Japanese with US citizenship) and Sansei ("third generation"; children of Nisei). The rest are immigrants of Issei ("first generation") born in Japan who are not eligible for US citizenship under US law.

Video Internment of Japanese Americans

Japanese Americans before World War II

Due largely to the socio-political changes emanating from the Meiji Restoration - and the recession caused by the sudden opening of the Japanese economy to the world market - people began emigrating from the Japanese Empire in 1868 to find work to survive. From 1869 to 1924 about 200,000 immigrated to the Hawaiian islands, most workers expect to work on sugar plantations of the islands. Approximately 180,000 people went to the US mainland, with the majority settling on the West Coast and building fields or small businesses. Most arrived before 1908, when the Master's Agreement between Japan and the United States prohibited the immigration of unskilled laborers. A gap allows the wives of men in the US to join their husbands. The practice of women married to proxies and immigrating to the US resulted in a large increase in the number of "picture brides".

As the Japanese-American population continues to grow, European Americans on the West Coast reject the new group, fearing competition and exaggerating the idea of ​​a mob of Asians seeking to take over white farms and businesses. Groups such as the Asiatic Exclusion League, the Joint California Immigration Committee, and the Golden West's Original Kids are organized in response to this "Yellow Danger". They managed to lobby to limit the property rights and citizenship of Japanese immigrants, since similar groups had previously organized against Chinese immigrants. Some laws and treaties that seek to slow immigration from Japan were introduced from the late 19th century. The Immigration Act of 1924, following the example of the Chinese Exception Act of 1882, effectively prohibits all immigration from Japan and other "undesirable" Asian countries.

The 1924 immigration ban resulted in a very different generation group within the Japanese-American community. The Issei exclusively those who immigrated before 1924; some people want to return to their homeland. Since no new immigration is allowed, all Japanese Americans born after 1924 are, by definition, born in the US and automatically US citizens. This Nisei generation is a different group from their parents. In addition to the usual generation differences, Issei men are usually ten to fifteen years older than their wives, making them much older than the younger children of their often large families. US law prohibits Japanese immigrants to be naturalized citizens, making them dependent on their children to rent or buy property. Communication between children who speak English and parents who speak mostly or entirely in Japanese are often difficult. A large number of older Nisses, many of whom were born before the immigration ban, were married and had started their own families when the US joined World War II.

Despite the racist laws that prevent Issei from becoming naturalized citizens (and therefore from owning property, electing or running for political office), these Japanese immigrants set up communities in their new homeland. The Japanese Americans contribute to the agriculture of California and other Western countries, introducing irrigation methods that allow the planting of fruits, vegetables and flowers on previously unfriendly soil. In rural and urban areas, kenjinkai , community groups for immigrants from the same Japanese prefecture, and fujinkai , a Buddhist women association, organizing community events and charitable work, providing loans and assistance finance, and building a Japanese language school for their children. Excluded from setting up shop in a white neighborhood, a small business belonging to nikkei thrives in Nihonmachi , or Japantowns urban centers like Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Seattle.

In the 1930s, the Naval Intelligence Office (ONI), concerned about the military power of the Japanese Empire in Asia, began overseeing the Japanese-American community in Hawaii. From 1936, on the orders of President Roosevelt, ONI began to compile "a special list of those who would be the first to be placed in a concentration camp in case of trouble" between Japan and the United States. In 1939, again on the orders of the President, ONI, Military Intelligence Division, and the FBI began working together to develop a larger Custodian Detention Index. In early 1941, Roosevelt commissioned Curtis Munson to conduct an investigation into Japanese Americans living on the West Coast and in Hawaii. After working with FBI and ONI officials and interviewing Japanese Americans and those who are familiar with them, Munson decided that the "Japanese problem" did not exist. His final report to the President, delivered on 7 November 1941, "certifies an extraordinary, even extraordinary, loyalty among ethnic groups generally suspected." Subsequent reports by Kenneth Ringle, presented to the President in January 1942, also found little evidence to support Japanese-American infidelity claims and against mass arrests.

Maps Internment of Japanese Americans

After Pearl Harbor

The attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, led military and political leaders to suspect that the Japanese Empire was preparing for a full-scale attack on the West Coast of the United States. Due to the rapid Japanese military conquest of much of Asia and the Pacific between 1936 and 1942, some Americans feared that its military forces could not be stopped.

American public opinion was originally established by a large population of Japanese Americans living on the West Coast, with the Los Angeles Times characterizing them as "a good, born and educated American like that." Many Americans believe that their allegiance to the United States is unquestionable.

But, six weeks after the attack, public opinion across the Pacific began to turn against Japanese Americans living on the West Coast, as the press and other Americans became nervous about the potential of the fifth column activity. Although the government (including President Franklin D. Roosevelt and FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover) dismissed all Japanese-American espionage rumors in the name of the Japanese War effort, increased pressure on Administration as a wave of public opinion turned against the American Japanese. Civil and military officials have serious concerns about Japanese ethnic loyalty after the Niihau Incident immediately following the attack on Pearl Harbor, when a Japanese civilian and two ethnic Japanese-born Hawaiians on the island of Ni'ihau are loudly liberating a fallen man. and arrested the Japanese naval commander, attacking his fellow Ni'ihau in the process.

Some concerns over Japanese ethnic loyalties seem to stem from racial prejudices rather than evidence of irregularities. However, reports of the Roberts Commission, which investigated the Pearl Harbor attack, were released on January 25 and accused those of the Japanese espionage ancestors who led to the attack. Major Karl Bendetsen and Lieutenant General John L. DeWitt, head of the Western Defense Command, each questioned Japanese-American allegiance. DeWitt said:

The fact that nothing has happened so far is more or less... not fun, because I feel that in view of the fact that we have no sporadic effort to sabotage that there is control being done and when we have it will become a mass base.

He further stated in a conversation with California governor, Culbert L. Olson,

There is a large volume of public opinion now developing against Japan of all classes, aliens and non-aliens, to take them out of the ground, and in Southern California around Los Angeles-in that area too-what they want and they bring pressure on the government to move all the Japanese out. As a matter of fact, it is not instigated or developed by people who do not think but by the best people in California. Since the publication of Roberts Report, they feel that they are living in the midst of many enemies. They do not trust the Japanese, none of them.

DeWitt, who runs the internment program, repeatedly told the newspaper that "A Jap's a Jap" and testified to Congress,

I do not want them [people of Japanese ancestors] here. They are a dangerous element. There is no way to determine their loyalty... It makes no difference whether he is an American citizen, he is still a Japanese. American citizenship does not always determine loyalty... But we have to worry about Japan all the time until he is removed from the map.

DeWitt also sought approval to conduct search and foreclosure operations aimed at preventing Japanese aliens from making radio transmissions to Japanese ships. The Department of Justice declined, stating that there was no possible reason to support DeWitt's statement, because the FBI concluded that there was no security threat. On January 2, the California Legislative Joint Immigration Committee sent a manifesto to a California newspaper that attacked "Japanese ethnicity," which was allegedly "totally incompatible." This Manifesto further states that all people of the Japanese heritage are the loyal subjects of the Emperor of Japan; The Manifesto argues that Japanese language schools are the bastion of racism that promotes the doctrine of Japanese racial superiority.

The manifesto was supported by the Original Kids and Princess of the Golden West and the California Department of the American Legion, which in January demanded that all Japanese with dual citizens be placed in concentration camps. Supervision is not limited to those who have been to Japan, but include a small number of German and Italian alien enemies. In February, Earl Warren, the California Attorney General, had begun his efforts to persuade the federal government to remove all ethnic Japanese from the West Coast.

Those with only 1/16 Japanese can be placed in internment camps. There is evidence to support the argument that action is motivated by race, rather than military necessity. Bendetsen, promoted to colonel, said in 1942, "I decided that if they had one drop of Japanese blood in it, they would have to go to camp."

After the bombing of Pearl Harbor and under the Alien Enemy Act, the Presidential Proclamation 2525, 2526 and 2527 were issued to appoint Japanese, German and Italian citizens as enemy enemies. Information from CDI was used to locate and imprison foreign nationals from Japan, Germany and Italy (although Germany and Italy did not declare war on the United States until December 11).

The Presidential Proclamation 2537 was issued on January 14, 1942, requiring foreigners to report any change of address, occupation or name to the FBI. Alien enemies are not allowed to enter restricted areas. The violators of this rule are subject to "arrest, detention and detention during the war."

On February 13, the Pacific Congress subcommittee on aliens and sabotage recommended to the President to promptly evacuate "all those of Japanese descent and all others, aliens and citizens" considered harmful from the "strategic territory", which further stipulates that including the entire "strategic territory" of California, Oregon, Washington, and the Alaska Region. On February 16, the President commissioned the War Secretary Henry L. Stimson by replying. A conference on 17 February Stimson Secretary with assistant secretary John J. McCloy, Provost Marshal General Allen W. Gullion, Army Deputy Chief of Staff Mark W. Clark, and Colonel Bendetsen decided that General DeWitt should be directed to start evacuation "to the extent that he deemed necessary "to protect vital installations.

Executive Command 9066 and related actions

The Executive Order of 9066, signed by Franklin D. Roosevelt on 19 February 1942, ordered the military commander to appoint "military territory" at their discretion, "from which any or all persons may be exempted." This "exclusion zone", unlike the group of "foreign enemies", applies to anyone who may be chosen by an official military commander, whether citizen or non-citizen. Eventually the zone will include parts of the East and West Coast, totaling about 1/3 of the country by area. Unlike the subsequent deportation and imprisonment programs that will apply to large numbers of Japanese Americans, direct detention and restrictions under the Individual Exclusion Program are placed primarily in people of German or Italian descent, including Americans.

• March 2, 1942: Lieutenant General John L. DeWitt issues Public Proclamation no. 1, stating that "such persons or classes of persons may require", at some later point, should be excluded from the "Military Area No. 1" (basically, the entire Pacific coast to about 100.2 miles (161.3 km) inland) , and requires anyone with an "enemy" ancestor to file a Change of Residence Change if they plan to move. The second exclusion zone is set a few months later, including the area chosen by most Japanese Americans who managed to leave the first zone.
• March 11, 1942: Executive Order 9095 creates a Custodian Office for Recipients of Foreign Property, and grants it a complete, discretionary authority over all foreign property interests. Many assets are frozen, creating immediate financial difficulties for affected foreigners, preventing most from escaping the exclusion zone.
• March 21, 1942: President Roosevelt signed the Public Law 503 (approved by a vote after just one hour of discussions in the Senate and thirty minutes in the House) to provide the enforcement of his executive order. Written by War Department officer Karl Bendetsen - who will later be promoted to Director of the Civil War Control Administration and oversee the detention of Japanese Americans - the law makes a violation of military orders a lawless offense punishable up to a $ 5,000 fine and a year in prison.
• March 24, 1942: Public Proclamation No. 3 announced at 8:00 pm to 6 am for all "foreign enemies and all Japanese people" inside the military.

• March 24, 1942: General DeWitt began issuing Civil Exclusion Orders for certain areas of "Military Area No. 1." The Japanese American Americans on Bainbridge Island, Washington were the first in the country to be subject to such orders, because of the island's proximity to the naval base; they were given until March 30 to prepare for the transfer from the island, an event commemorated by the US Exception Warning on Bainbridge Island.
• March 27, 1942: General Proclamation of DeWitt No. 4 prohibits all Japanese ancestors from leaving "Military Area No. 1" for "any purpose until and to the extent that future proclamations or orders from this base shall permit or direct."
• May 3, 1942: General DeWitt issues Civil Exclusion Orders. 34, ordered all Japanese ancestors, whether citizens or non-residents, who remained in "Military Area No. 1" to report to the assembly centers, where they would stay until they were transferred to a permanent "Relocation Center".

This decree includes people of Japanese descent as well. Anyone who has at least one-sixteen (the equivalent of having one great-grandmother) of Japanese descent qualifies. Korean Americans and Taiwanese, are classified as ethnic Japanese because Korea and Taiwan are Japanese colonies at the time, also included.

Non-military advocates for exceptions, deletions and arrests

Deportation and detention are popular among many white farmers who hate Japanese American farmers. "White American farmers admit that their interests require the transfer of Japanese." These people see the internees as a convenient means to deprive their Japanese-American rivals. Austin E. Anson, secretary of the Salinas Vegetable Growers Association, told the Saturday Evening Post in 1942:

We are accused of wanting to get rid of Japan for selfish reasons. We do. This is the question of whether the white man lives on the Pacific Coast or a brown-skinned man. They come to this valley to work, and they stay to take over... If all Japan were moved tomorrow, we will never lose them in two weeks, because white farmers can take over and produce everything that grows Jap. And we do not want them back when the war ends.

The Roberts Commission report, prepared at the request of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, has been cited as an example of fear and prejudice that inform the thinking behind the internment program. The report seeks to link the Japanese Americans with espionage activities, and connect them with the Pearl Harbor bombing. Columnist Henry McLemore, writing for the Hearst newspaper, reflects the growing public sentiment fueled by this report:

I will soon get rid of every Japanese on the West Coast to a point deep in the interior. I do not mean a nice interior part. Collect them, pack them up and give them space in the barren lands... Personally, I hate Japanese people. And it applies to all of them.

Other California newspapers also embrace this view. According to the editorial of the Los Angeles Times ,

A venomous snake no matter where the viper wherever it hatches... So, an American of Japanese descent born of Japanese parents, nurtured in Japanese tradition, lives in a transplanted Japanese atmosphere... even though the nominal brand of citizenship is not deliberate almost certainly and with the rarest exception grows to be Japanese, and not Americans... So, while it may cause injustice for some to treat them all as potential enemies, I can not escape from the conclusion... that such treatment... should be given to each and all of them as we fight with their race.

State politicians join the bandwagon embraced by Leland Ford of Los Angeles, which demands that "all Japanese, whether citizens or not, are placed in concentration camps [inland]."

Detention of Japanese Americans, who provide critical agricultural labor in the West Coast, creating labor shortages, exacerbated by the induction of many American workers into the Armed Forces. This vacuum accelerated migration of Mexican immigrant workers to the United States to fill this work, under the banner known as the Bracero Program. Many Japanese internment camp released temporarily from them - for example, to harvest crops western bits - to overcome the wartime labor shortage this.

non-military advocate against exclusion, removal, and detention

Like many white American farmers, Hawaiian white entrepreneurs have their own motives to determine how to deal with Japanese Americans, but they are opposed to internationalization. Instead, these men obtained laws to defend the freedom of nearly 150,000 Japanese Americans who were supposed to be sent to internment camps in Hawaii. As a result, only 1,200 to 1,800 Japanese Americans in Hawaii are interned.

Hawaii's powerful businessman concludes that imprisoning large numbers of the island's population will affect the island's economic prosperity. The Japanese represent "more than 90 percent of carpenters, almost all transport workers, and most agricultural workers" on the island. General Delos Carleton Emmons, the Hawaiian military governor, also argues that the Japanese workforce is "very important" to rebuild the destroyed defenses in Pearl Harbor. "Acknowledging the contribution of the Japanese-American community to Hawaii's economic prosperity, General Emmons fought against the American Japanese and has the support of most Hawaiian businessmen.

Coming to different conclusions about how to deal with the Japanese-American community, both white farmers in the United States and white Hawaiian businesspeople prioritize protection for their own economic interests.

Although internees are generally popular policies in California, support is not universal. R.C. Hoiles, the Orange County Register publisher, argued during the war that the internment was unethical and unconstitutional:

It seems that punishing disloyal people into our country without having any special proof of them is too foreign to our way of life and too close to the kind of government we are fighting against.... We must realize, as Henry Emerson Fosdick so wisely said, 'Freedom always dangerous but that is the safest thing we have. '

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Statement of military necessity as justification for internees

Niihau Incident

The Niihau incident occurred in December 1941, right after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Three Japanese Americans on Niihau Island in Hawaii helped a Japanese pilot, Shigenori Nishikaichi, who crashed there. Regardless of the incident, the Territorial Governor of Hawaii rejected calls for forcing the masses of Japanese Americans living there. Shigenori Nishikaichi is buried in his hometown, Hashihama, Japan. In his grave stone it says, 'His good deeds will live forever.'

Cryptography

In Magic: The Uncovered Story of US Intelligence and the Evacuation of Japanese Population from the West Coast During World War II David Lowman, a former National Security Agency (NSA) agent, argues that Magic ("Magic" the name for the American code-breaking effort "disguised as" the frightening specter of a massive espionage net, "thus justifying the internees.Littleman argues that the detention was made to ensure the confidentiality of US code-breaking efforts, because the effective prosecution of Japanese Americans may require disclosure of confidential information. If US code-breaking technology is revealed in the context of individualized spy trials, the Imperial Japanese Navy will change its code, thus undermining the benefits of strategic US wars.

Some experts have criticized or denied Lowman's reason that "disloyalty" among some Japanese Americans can legitimize "imprisoning 120,000 people, including babies, elderly, and mentally ill". Lowman's reading of the contents of the Magic wire has also been challenged, as some experts argue that cable shows that Japanese Americans are not paying attention to the Imperial Japanese bid to spy against the United States. According to a critic, Lowman's book has long been "denied and discredited".

The controversial conclusions drawn by Lowman are defended by conservative commentator Michelle Malkin in his book In International Defense; The case for 'Racial Profiles' in World War II and the War on Terror (2004). Malkin's defenses against the Japanese internees were in part due to a reaction to what he described as "the constant alarmism of Bush-bashers who argue that any counter-terror act in America is tantamount to an intern." He criticizes the academic treatment of the subject, and suggests that academics who are critical of Japanese internees have ulterior motives. His book was widely criticized, especially with regard to his reading of the "Miracle" cable. Daniel Pipes, also drawing on Lowman, has defended Malkin, and says that Japanese American internees are "good ideas" that offer "lessons for today".

United States District Court Opinion

A letter from General DeWitt and Colonel Bendetsen expressing a racist bias against Japanese Americans was circulated and then hastily edited in 1943-1944. DeWitt's final report states that, because of their race, it is impossible to determine the loyalties of Japanese Americans, thus requiring the internees. The original version was so offensive - even in a 1940s war atmosphere - that Bendetsen ordered all copies to be destroyed.

In 1980, the original copy of the Final Report: The Evacuation of Japan from the West Coast - 1942 was found in the National Archives, along with notes showing much of the difference between the original and the edited versions. Previous versions, racist and inflammatory, as well as the FBI and Office of Naval Intelligence (ONI) reports, led to the retribution levy which reversed Fred Korematsu's beliefs, Gordon Hirabayashi and Minoru Yasui on all costs associated with their refusal to subject to exceptions and internees. The court found that the government had deliberately withheld these reports and other important evidence, in court to the Supreme Court, which proved that there was no military need for the exceptions and alienation of Japanese Americans. In the words of a Justice Department official who wrote during the war, justification is based on "deliberate historical inaccuracies and deliberate lies."

Ringle Report

In May 2011, US Attorney General Neal Katyal, after a year of investigation, found that Charles Fahy deliberately arrested the Ringle Report compiled by the Naval Intelligence Office to justify Roosevelt's government action in the case of Hirabayashi v. United States and Korematsu vs. United States . The report will undermine the government's position from the military's need for such action, since it concludes that most Japanese Americans are not a national security threat, and that allegations of communications espionage have been found without foundation by the FBI and Federal Communications Commission..

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The editorial of the major newspapers at that time generally supported the Japanese invention by the United States.

Editorial of the Los Angeles Times dated February 19, 1942, states that: "Since 7 December there has been a clear threat to the security of this region in the presence of potential saboteurs and fifth columnists close to the oil refineries and storage tanks, aircraft factories, Army posts, Navy facilities, ports, and communication systems Under normal reasonable procedures not a single day will pass after Pearl Harbor before the government proceeds to collect and send to the interior points of all the Japanese foreigners and their direct descendants for classification and possible internment. "

Editorial Atlanta Constitution of 20 February 1942, stated that:

Time to stop taking risks with Japanese and Japanese-American aliens has come.... While Americans have the same dislike for crackdown, everyone should realize that this is a total war, that no Americans are fleeing in Japan or Germany or Italy and absolutely no use in this country running even the slightest risk. disaster from enemy groups within the country.

Editorial Washington Post of 22 February 1942, stated that:

There is only one way to regard the orders of the President who empower the Army to build a "military territory" that allows citizens or foreigners to be excluded. That is accepting orders as the necessary escort for total defense.

Editorial Los Angeles Times of February 28, 1942, stated that:

Like a large number of Japanese, no matter where was born, unfortunately there is no doubt whatsoever. They are for Japan; they will assist the Japanese in any way possible by espionage, sabotage and other activities; and they need to be restrained for the safety of California and the United States. And since there is no definitive test for loyalty to the United States, everything must be restrained. Those who are truly faithful will understand and do not mind.

Editorial Los Angeles Times of December 8, 1942, stated that:

The Japanese in these centers in the United States have been given the best care, along with food and shelter far better than they ever knew before, and a small amount of restraint. They have been fed as well as the Army as well or better accommodated.... Americans can go without milk and butter, but Japan will be given away.

Editorial Los Angeles Times dated April 22, 1943, stated that:

As a race, Japan has made for themselves a record for unparalleled treachery unmatched in history. Whatever small theoretical advantages that may exist in freeing those under the control of this country will be very heavy compared to the risks involved.

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Facilities

Although the event is most commonly referred to as the internment of Japanese Americans, the government operates several different camp types that accommodate Japanese Americans. The most well-known facility is the Civil War Control of Civil-controlled Civil War (IGC) Assemblies of Civil War and the Civil Relocation Authority (WRA) Relocation Center, unofficially) referred to as "internment camp." Scholars have urged to drop such euphemisms and call them concentration camps and people as jailed. The Department of Justice (DOJ) operates official camps called Internment Camps , which are used to detain people suspected of committing crimes or "enemy sympathizers." The government also operates camps for a number of German American and Italian Americans, who are sometimes assigned to share facilities with Japanese Americans. The WCCA and WRA facilities are the largest and most common. The WCCA Assembly Centers are the first temporary facilities established in the horse racing arena, exhibition venues, and other large public meeting places to assemble and organize internees before they are transported to the WRA Relocation Center by truck, bus or train. The WRA Relocation Center is a semi-permanent camp that houses people removed from the exclusion zone after March 1942, or until they can move elsewhere in the United States outside the exclusion zone.

DOJ and army internment camps

Eight US Department of Justice Camps (in Texas, Idaho, North Dakota, New Mexico and Montana) took Japanese Americans, primarily non-citizens and their families. The camps are run by the Immigration and Naturalization Service, under the DOJ umbrella, and guarded by Border Frontier agents rather than military police. The population of these camps includes about 3,800 from 5,500 Buddhist and Christian pastors, Japanese language school instructors, newspaper workers, fishermen and community leaders accused of fifth column activity and captured by the FBI after Pearl Harbor. (The remaining 1700 are released to WRA relocation centers.) The immigrants and citizens of German and Italian descent are also held in these facilities, often in the same camps as Japanese Americans. About 7,000 German Americans and 3,000 Italian Americans from Hawai'i and the US mainland were interned in DOJ camps, along with 500 German sailors who had been detained after being rescued from SS Columbus in 1938. 2,264 ethnic Japanese, 4,058 ethnic Germans, and 288 ethnic Italians were deported from 19 Latin American countries for hostage exchange programs that were later left with Axis countries or confinement in DOJ camps.

Several US Army internment camps inhabited by Japanese, Italian, and German Americans are considered "potentially dangerous." Camp Lordsburg, in New Mexico, is the only site built specifically to limit Japanese Americans. In May 1943, the Army was given responsibility for the detention of prisoners of war and all civilian prisoners were transferred to DOJ camps.

WCCA Civil Representative Center

The Executive Order of 9066 authorizes the removal of all persons from Japanese ancestors from the West Coast; However, it was signed before any facilities were completed for Japanese abandoned Japanese homes. After a voluntary evacuation program failed to produce many families who left the exclusion zone, the military took over the mandatory evacuation. On 9 April 1942, The wartime Civil Control Administration (WCCA) was established by the Western Defense Command to coordinate the forcible transfer of Japanese Americans to inland concentration camps.

The relocation center faces opposition from inland communities near the proposed location who do not like the idea of ​​their new "Jap" neighbor. In addition, government troops are struggling to build what are essentially self-sufficient cities in very remote, backward, and harsh areas of the country; they are not ready to accommodate the influx of more than 110,000 refugees. Since Japanese Americans living in the forbidden zone were considered too dangerous to conduct their day-to-day business, the military decided that they should place them in temporary centers until relocation centers were completed.

Under the direction of Colonel Karl Bendetsen, existing facilities were set to be converted into WCCA use in March 1942, and the Army Engineers Corps completed construction on this site on 21 April 1942. All but four of the 15 confinement sites (12 in California, and respectively - in Washington, Oregon, and Arizona) was previously a racetrack or fair. Stable and ranch areas are cleaned and quickly converted into residences for a family of six, while wooden barracks and tarpers are built for additional housing, as well as communal latrines, laundry facilities and mess rooms. A total of 92,193 Japanese Americans were transferred to these temporary detention centers from March to August 1942. (18,026 others were taken directly to the two "reception centers" developed as Manzanar and Poston WRA camps.) The WCCA was dissolved in March. 15, 1943, when it became the War Relocation Authority and turned its attention to a more permanent relocation center.

WRA Relocation Center

The War Relocation Authority (WRA) is a US civilian agency responsible for relocation and detention. The WRA was formed by President Roosevelt on March 18, 1942, with the 9102 Executive Order and officially ceased on 30 June 1946. Milton S. Eisenhower, then a Department of Agriculture official, was selected to head the WRA. In the US Government film of 1943 Japan Relocation he said, "This picture tells how mass migrations are accomplished, neither the Army, nor the War Relocation Authority enjoy the idea of ​​taking men, women and children from them homes, their shops and their agriculture, so military and civilian institutions, determined to do the job as democracy should - with real consideration for the people involved. "Dillon S. Myer replaces Eisenhower three months later on June 17 1942. Myer served as WRA Director until the centers were closed. Within nine months, the WRA has opened ten facilities in seven states, and moved more than 100,000 people from WCCA facilities.

The WRA camp at Lake Tule, although initially like any other camp, was eventually used as a detention center for people believed to be a security risk. Lake Tule also serves as a "segregation center" for individuals and families considered "unfaithful", and for those who will be deported to Japan.

List of camps

There are three types of camps. Civil Assembly Center is a temporary camp, often located on horse tracks, where Japanese Americans are sent because they are expelled from their community. Finally, most of it is sent to the Relocation Center, also known as the internment camp. Detention Camp houses the Nikkei that is considered intrusive or has a special interest in the government.

Civil Assembly Center

• Arcadia, California (Santa Anita Racetrack, stables)
• Fresno, California (Fresno Exhibition Area, racetrack, stables)
• Marysville/Arboga, California (migrant worker camp)
• Mayer, Arizona (Civil Corps Conservation camp)
• Merced, California (county fair)
• Owens Valley, California
• Parker Dam, Arizona
• Pinedale, California (Pinedale Assembly Center, warehouse)
• Pomona, California (Los Angeles County Fairgrounds, horse races, stables)
• Portland, Oregon (International Pacific Cattle Fair, including 3,800 housed in the main pavilion building)
• Puyallup, Washington (field horse race, Informally known as "Camp Harmony")
• Sacramento, California Camp Kohler (Site of Present-Day Walerga Park) (migrant worker camp)
• Salinas, California (fairs, horse races, stables)
• San Bruno, California (Tanforan racetrack, stables)
• Stockton, California (San Joaquin County Fairgrounds, horse races, stables)
• Tulare, California (fairgrounds, horse races, stables)
• Turlock, California (Stanislaus County Fairgrounds)
• Woodland, California

Relocation Center

• Gila River War Relocation Center, Arizona
• Granada War Battle Center, Colorado (AKA "Amache")
• The Heart Mountain Relocation Center, Wyoming
• Jerome War Relocation Center, Arkansas
• Manzanar War, Relocation Center
• Minidoka War Relocation Center, Idaho
• Post-War Relocation Center, Arizona
• The Rohwer War Relocation Center, Arkansas
• Topaz War Relocation Center, Utah
• The Tule Lake Relocation Center, California

Ministry of Justice prison camp

Kamp-kamp ini sering menahan tahanan Jerman-Amerika dan Italia-Amerika selain orang Jepang Amerika:

• Crystal City, Texas
• Fort Lincoln Internment Camp
• Benteng Missoula, Montana
• Fort Stanton, New Mexico
• Kenedy, Texas
• Kooskia, Idaho
• Santa Fe, New Mexico
• Seagoville, Texas
• Forest Park, Georgia

Pusat Isolasi Warga

Citizens Isolation Center is for those who are considered a troubled prisoner.

• Leupp, Arizona
• Moab, Utah (AKA Dalton Wells)
• Fort Stanton, New Mexico (AKA Old Raton Ranch)

Federal Prison Bureau

Prisoners convicted of crimes, usually draft resistance, are sent to these sites, mostly federal prisons:

• Catalina, Arizona
• Fort Leavenworth, Kansas
• McNeil Island, Washington

AS. Military facilities

Camp-camp ini sering menahan tahanan jerman dan italia selain orang Jepang Amerika:

• Fort McDowell/Angel Island
• Camp Blanding, Florida
• Camp Forrest, Tennessee
• Camp Livingston, Louisiana
• Camp Lordsburg, New Mexico
• Camp McCoy, Wisconsin
• Florence, Arizona
Fort Bliss, New Mexico, Texas
• Fort Howard, Maryland
• Fort Lewis, Washington
Fort Meade, Maryland Fort Richardson, Alaska Fort Sam Houston, Texas Fort Sill, Oklahoma
• Griffith Park, California
• Honouliuli Internment Camp, Hawaii? and
Pulau Pasir, Hawaii? aku
• Stringtown, Oklahoma
Fasilitas Layanan Imigrate Naturalisasi

This immigration detention station arrested about 5,500 people who were arrested immediately after Pearl Harbor, alongside several thousand German and Italian prisoners, and served as a processing hub from which the men were transferred to DOJ or Army camps:

• East Boston Immigration Office
• Ellis Island
• Cincinnati, Ohio
• San Pedro, Los Angeles
• Seattle, Washington
• Sharp Park, California
• Tuna Canyon, Los Angeles



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Exceptions, deletions, and containments

Somewhere between 110,000 and 120,000 Japanese ancestors are subject to this mass exclusion program, of which about two-thirds are US citizens. The remaining one-third are non-citizens who are interned under the Alien Enemies Act; many of these "foreign residents" have been residents of the United States for decades, but have been deprived by law to become naturalized citizens. Also part of West Coast shifting is 101 children of Japanese descent taken from orphanages and orphanages in the exclusion zone.

The Japanese-born internees were first sent to one of the temporary 17 "Temporary Center-Civic Centers", where the most-awaited transfer to the permanent relocation centers is being built by the newly formed War Relocation Authority (WRA). Some of those reported to civilian assembly centers are not sent to relocation centers, but released on condition that they remain outside the forbidden zone until military orders are changed or revoked. Nearly 120,000 Japanese Americans and foreign Japanese residents were eventually moved from their homes in California, western Oregon and southern Washington and southern Arizona as part of the largest forced relocation in US history.

Most camps/residences, gardens, and stock areas are placed on the reservation of Native Americans, of which Native Americans are officially compensated. Native American councils have denied the amounts negotiated in absentia by US government authorities. They are then required to obtain additional assistance and compensation for some disputed items.

Under the National Student Council Relocation Program (supported mainly by the American Friends Service Committee), college-age students are allowed to leave the camp to attend institutions willing to accept students from Japanese ancestors. Although the program initially granted leave permits to a small number of students, this eventually included 2,263 students on December 31, 1943.

Curfew and exceptions

On March 2, 1942, General John DeWitt, commander-in-chief of the Western Defense Command, publicly announced the creation of two banned military zones. Military Area No. 1 consists of southern parts of Arizona and western parts of California, Oregon, and Washington, as well as all of California's southern Los Angeles. Military Area No. 2 cover the remaining countries. The DeWitt Proclamation told the Japanese Americans that they would be asked to leave Military Area 1, but stated that they could remain in the second forbidden zone. Removal from Military Area No. 1 originally occurred through "voluntary evacuation." Japanese Americans are free to go anywhere outside the exclusion zone or within Area 2, with the arrangements and costs of the relocation to be borne by the individual. The policy was short-lived; DeWitt issued another proclamation on March 27 that forbade Japanese Americans from leaving Area 1. The night time clock, also started on March 27, 1942, places further restrictions on the movement and daily life of Japanese Americans.

The eviction from the West Coast began on 24 March 1942, with the Civil Exclusion Orders No. 1, which gave 227 Japanese Japanese residents on Bainbridge Island, Washington six days to prepare their "evacuation" directly to Manzanar. Colorado Governor Ralph Lawrence Carr is the only elected official who publicly condemns the American's conduct (an act that harms his re-election, but gives him thanks from the American community of Japan, so the statue of him was founded in Denver Japantown's Sakura Kotak). A total of 108 exclusion orders were issued by the Western Defense Command over the next five months completing the removal of Japan from the West Coast in August 1942.

Conditions in camps

In 1943, Interior Minister Harold L. Ickes wrote "the situation at least some Japanese internment camps is bad and gets worse quickly." The quality of life in the camp is strongly influenced by the government entity responsible for them. INS Camps is governed by an international agreement. The legal distinction between interned and relocated has a significant effect on those who are locked out. INS camps are required to provide the minimum quality of food and housing equal to those experienced by the lowest rank in the military.

According to the 1943 War Relocation Authority report, the internees were placed in "tar-filled barracks of simple skeletal construction with no pipes or cooking facilities." Simple facilities meet international law, but leave a lot to be desired. Many camps were quickly constructed by civilian contractors during the summer of 1942 based on designs for military barracks, making them unfit for a narrow family life. In many camps, twenty-five people were forced to live in a room built to accommodate four people, leaving no room for privacy.

The Heart Warfare Relocation Center in northwestern Wyoming is a wire-walled enclave with unpartitioned toilets, cot for bed, and a 45 cents per capita per day budget for food rations.

Armed guards are stationed in camps, â € <â €

The phrase "shikata ga nai" (translated loosely as "can not be helped") is usually used to summarize the resignation of families who are exiled to their helplessness under these conditions. It is noticed by their children, as mentioned in the famous memoirs of Jeanne Wakatsuki Houston and James D. Houston by Farewell to Manzanar. Furthermore, it should be noted that parents may have internalized these emotions to withhold their disappointment and sadness from affecting their children. Nevertheless, children are still aware of this emotional repression.

Medical care

Before the war, 87 doctors and surgeons, 137 nurses, 105 dentists, 132 pharmacists, 35 ophthalmologists, and 92 laboratory technicians provided health care for the Japanese American population, with most practicing in urban centers such as Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Seattle. When the expulsion from the West Coast was carried out, the Civil War Administration Control worked with the United States Public Health Service (USPHS) and many of these professionals established hospitals in temporary assembly centers. An Issei doctor was appointed to manage each facility, and additional health staff worked under his supervision, although USPHS recommendations from one doctor to every 1,000 inmates and one nurse to 200 inmates were not met. Overcrowded and unhealthy conditions force a central nursing center to prioritize inoculation of general, midwifery, and surgical care; in Manzanar, for example, hospital staff performed more than 40,000 immunizations against typhus and smallpox. Food poisoning is common and also demands significant attention. Those who were interned in Topaz, Minidoka, and Jerome had dysentery outbreaks.

Facilities in the more permanent "relocation center" eventually outpaced temporary emergency treatment centers, but in many cases these hospitals were incomplete when prisoners began to arrive and were not fully functional for several months. In addition, important medical supplies such as drugs and surgical equipment and sterilization are limited. The shortage of staff suffered in the assembly centers continued in the WRA camps. The government's decision to reverse the management structure and bring down American medical workers to American positions under white employees, while limiting their payment rates to $ 20/month, further exacerbated the problem. (At Heart Mountain, for example, American Japanese doctors receive $ 19/month compared to white nurses' $ 150/month.) The war has led to a shortage of healthcare professionals across the country, and camps often lose potential candidates to outpatient hospitals offered and better living conditions. When the WRA began allowing some Japanese Americans to leave the camp, many medical professionals were living outside the camp. Those who retain little authority in hospital administration. Combined with unfair payrolls between white employees and Japanese American employees, conflicts arose in some hospitals, and there were two Japanese who left the United States at Heart Mountain in 1943.

Despite the shortage of healthcare workers, limited access to equipment, and tension between white administrators and American Japanese staff, the hospital provided much needed medical care at the camp. The extreme climate of isolated places of detention is severe in infants and elderly inmates. The frequent dust storms in high desert locations lead to an increase in cases of asthma and coccidioidomycosis, while the marshy and mosquito-fed Arkansas camp exposes residents to malaria, all of whom are in the camps. Nearly 6,000 direct deliveries are made at this hospital, and all mothers receive pre and postnatal care. The WRA recorded 1,862 deaths across all ten camps, with cancer, heart disease, tuberculosis, and vascular disease that are the cause of the majority.

Education in the internment camp

Of the 110,000 Japanese Americans who were detained by the United States government during World War II, 30,000 were children. Most are children of school age, so educational facilities are set up in camps. However, letting them continue their education, does not erase the potential for traumatic experiences during their time at the camp. The government is not planning enough for the camps, â € <â €

The rhetorical curriculum of schools is based primarily on the study of "democratic ideals and to find many implications." The English compositions studied in the Jerome and Rohwer camps in Arkansas focus on these 'American ideals', and many of these compositions are related to camps. The responses varied, as schoolchildren from the Topaz camp were patriotic and believed in the war effort, but could not ignore the fact of their detention. To establish patriotism, Japanese is forbidden in camps, forcing children to learn English and then returning home and teaching their parents.

Sports in the internment camp

Although life at the camp is very difficult, Japanese Americans form many different sports teams, including baseball and soccer teams. In January 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued what became known as "Green Light Letter," to MLB Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis, who urged him to continue playing the Major League Baseball game despite the ongoing war. In it, Roosevelt said that "baseball provides recreation," and this also applies to Japanese American incarcerees. Over 100 baseball teams were set up in Manzanar camps so that Japanese Americans could do recreation, and some team names were brought in from teams formed before detention.

Both men and women participate in sports. In some cases, the Japanese baseball team from the camp travels to an outside community to play another team. Incarcerees from Idaho competed in the state tournament in 1943, and there was a match between the prison guards and the Japanese American team. Branch Rickey, who will be responsible for bringing Jackie Robinson to Major League Baseball in 1947, sent a letter to all WRA camps that expressed interest in hunting down some Nisei players. In the fall of 1943, three players tried to Brooklyn Dodgers in front of MLB talent scout George Sisler, however, none of them became the team.

Students leave to attend Eastern academy

Although most of the Nisei students followed their families to the camp, a small number tried to arrange transfers to schools outside the exclusion zone to continue their education. Their initial efforts were expanded as sympathetic college administrators and the American Friends Service Committee began to coordinate a larger student relocation program. The Friends petitioned WRA Director Milton Eisenhower to place students in academic institutions of the East and Midwestern. The Japan National Student Relocation Council of America was formed on May 29, 1942, and AFSC administers the program. In September 1942, after an early Japanese American entourage, 250 students from the assembly center and the WRA camp returned to school. Their tuition, book costs, and living expenses were absorbed by the US government, private foundations, and church scholarships, in addition to the significant fundraising efforts led by Issei's parents at the camp. Outside the camp, the students took on the role of "goodwill ambassadors," and NJASRC and WRA promoted this image to soften anti-Japanese prejudices and prepare communities for the resettlement of Japanese Americans

Source of the article : Wikipedia